食物

食物,又稱食品,是為生物提供營養的物質。它們一般間接或直接取自植物、動物、真菌的各部分,並含有碳水化合物、脂肪、蛋白質、维生素、礦物質等生物所需營養素。食物在經生物消化後,會被其細胞吸收,用以提供能量、維持生命、滿足生理需求、幫助成長。動物之間的攝食行為各異;牠們亦按地理環境演化,佔據特定的生态位。
人類是雜食性動物。他們的適應能力很高,能在不同的生態環境中覓食。此外,他們也會在攝食前先把食物烹煮。食品产业為他們提供大多維持功能的能量——該一產業透過集約農業生產食物,然後加工,最後以系統把食品分發到消費者手上。上述過程高度依賴化石燃料,令食品生產業成為氣候變化的一大成因——佔了高達37%的總温室气体排放量[1]。
定義與分類
[编辑]食物是為生物提供營養及能量的物質[2][3]。有的食物經過加工,有的沒有。動物會為了成長、維持健康、獲得快感,而攝取食物。食物主要由水、脂質、蛋白质、碳水化石物組成;還可能含有维生素和鹽等其他有機物質和礦物質[4]。植物、藻類、部分微生物會透過光合作用合成所需的部分營養素[5]。幾乎所有食物都含有水分,而水本身亦是一種食物[6]。水不能提供能量;膳食纖維的能量密度很低,有些甚至不提供任何能量;脂質的能量密度則為眾多成分當中最高[3]。動植物還依靠部分无机物來維持功能[7]。
人類食物可根據成分及加工手段來分類[8]。食物組的數目及組成可能因分類方法而異。大多分類按著食物的起源及營養功能,把它們劃分成四個基本類別——蔬菜水果類、穀物麵包類、奶類、肉類[9]。聚焦於食物品質的研究則把它們分為全穀物、精製穀物、蔬菜、水果、堅果、豆類、蛋類、乳製品、魚類、紅肉、加工肉類、含糖飲料[10][11][12]。联合国粮食及农业组织和世界卫生组织把食物分成18至19類:穀物及其製品;根莖、塊莖、芭蕉及其製品;豆類、種子、堅果及其製品;奶類及其製品;蛋類及其製品;魚貝類及其製品;肉類及其製品;昆蟲、幼蟲及其製品;蔬菜及其製品;水果及其製品;脂質及油類;糖果及糖類;香料及調味料;飲料;機能性營養品;食物添加劑;複合性食物;鹹味零食[13]。
來源
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在特定生態系統中,食物透過食物鏈形成互相連接的網絡——初級生產者處於食物鏈的最底層,而顶级掠食者則處於最頂層[14]。食物网還包含攝食碎屑的食碎屑动物和分解生物屍體的分解者[14]。藻類、植物、部分細菌及原生生物都是初級生產者,它們從陽光獲得維持功能的能量[15]。初級消費者是以植物為主食的动物。再上一層則是次級消費者,牠們會攝食植食性动物。大多哺乳類及鳥類動物會同時攝食動物和植物(雜食性)[16]。顶级掠食者處於食物网的終點,牠們在所屬的生態系統中不存在會掠食牠們的掠食者[17]。人類是顶级掠食者[18]。
人類是雜食性動物,以蔬菜、水果、熟肉、牛奶、蛋類、蘑菇、海藻為食[16]。穀物是他們的主食,為人類提供比其他類型的農作物要多的能量[19]。玉米、小麥、稻米佔了全球穀物總產量的87%[20][21][22]。最終被人類攝食的農作物佔全球總產量的55%;其餘的則多用作喂飼動物(36%)及生產能源(9%)[23]。 麵包、葡萄酒、乾酪、酸奶等發酵食品的製作過程會用到真菌和細菌[24]。
光合作用
[编辑]能夠進行光合作用的生物會吸收來自太陽的能量,利用它們把空氣及土壤中的水和二氧化碳轉化成氧氣和葡萄糖。最終,氧氣會從生物體內釋出,而葡萄糖則成為它們的營養儲備[25]。能夠進行光合作用的植物、藻類、某些細菌通常處於食物鏈的最底層[26][27]。因此,光合作用是地球上幾乎所有生物的主要能量來源[28]。
植物也會從空氣、自然水源、土壤吸收所需的營養和礦物質[29]。它們會從空氣和水吸收碳、氧、氫這三種元素,以維持生命[30]。除此之外,它們也會從土壤吸收促進其生長的氮、磷、鉀;並吸收鈣、硫、鎂、硼化铁、氯、锰、鋅、鎳等其他重要元素[30]。
微生物
[编辑]細菌等微生物同樣處於食物鏈的底層。它們部分能從光合作用獲得能量,另一部分則透過分解生物屍體、廢物、化學物獲得[31]。細菌是原生動物的食物來源[32];後者則被小型無脊椎動物等生物捕食[33]。海洋中的浮游生物是不少水生生物的食物來源[34]。
若沒有細菌,地球就幾乎不可能出現其他生命——因為細菌會將大氣中的氮轉化為富含營養的氨。而氨是蛋白質、核酸、大多維生素的主要成分。在工業固氮法(哈柏法)面世後,地球上大多數的氮都是人造的[35]。
植物
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植物的不少部分皆可攝食。植物性食物可進一步細分為種子、水果、蔬菜、豆類、穀物、堅果[36]。各部分在植物學中的分類可能跟食物學不同,例如在植物學上,番茄、南瓜、辣椒、茄子、豌豆都屬於果實或種子,但在食物學上則一般被視作蔬菜[37]。如果食物中被攝食的部分源自生殖組織,則在植物學中被歸類為果實(fruits);因此,種子、堅果、穀物都屬於果實[38][39]。但從食物學的角度來看,種子、堅果、穀物、被視作蔬菜的果實都不屬於水果(fruits)[40]。小麥、玉米、稻米、大麥、高粱、小米、燕麥、黑麥等穀物是人類的主食及其他動物的飼料。它們都源自禾本科植物[41]。豆類則源自豆科植物[42]。全穀物指含有穀粒全部部分(麩皮、胚芽、胚乳)的食物[43]。堅果屬於乾果,但與其他乾果不同的是,它們外層一般包著木質外殼[40]。
多汁果實(因此有別於穀物、種子、堅果等乾果)可進一步細分為核果類(櫻桃和水蜜桃)、梨果類(蘋果和梨)、莓果類(黑莓和草莓)、柑橘類(橙和檸檬)、瓜類(西瓜和哈密瓜)、地中海水果類(葡萄和無花果)、熱帶水果類(香蕉和鳳梨)[40]。蔬菜指植物的其他可攝食部分,像是根、莖、葉、花、樹皮,乃至整株植物本身[44]。它們可分為根茎类(馬鈴薯和蘿蔔)、鱗莖类(洋蔥)、花菜类(花椰菜和西蘭花)、绿叶类(菠菜和萵苣)、茎菜类(芹菜和芦笋)[45][44]。
不同植物的營養成分各異。當中碳水化合物主要以澱粉、果糖、葡萄糖等形式存在[36]。除了维生素D和维生素B12,大多維生素都能在植物中發現;當中部分同時含有豐富的礦物質。水果的含水量可高達90%,並含有大量维生素C和使之帶甜的單醣[36][40]。蔬菜含有大量澱粉、鉀、膳食纖維、叶酸、维生素,脂質含量和熱量也很低,跟多汁果實(香蕉除外)不同[46][47]。穀物的澱粉含量較高[36];而堅果則含有大量蛋白質、膳食纖維、維生素B、維生素E[40]。種子也是食物的一種。它們數量豐富,含有纖維和Ω-3脂肪酸等對動物身體有益的脂肪[48][49]。營養素之間可能會互相影響,從而降低或增強部分營養素的生物利用率。例如植酸會影響部分糖類和維生素的釋放過程[36]。
植食性动物只靠攝食植物維生,牠們可進一步細分為食果动物[50]、食叶动物、食木動物[51]。环节动物、大象、黑猩猩、多種雀鳥等都是食果動物[52][53][54]。約182種魚能攝食種子或水果[55]。野生和人工飼養的動物能夠攝食不同的植物,取得營養[56]。
人類會攝食數以千計的植物。高達75,000種被子植物可能適合人類食用;他們經常攝食的只有當中約7,000種[57]。植物可加工成麵包、義大利麵、穀物食品、果汁、果醬。人們也會從中提取糖、香草、香料、油等食物原材料[36]。 葵花籽、亞麻籽、欧洲油菜籽、芝麻等油籽在經過壓榨後,能夠提煉出營養豐富的油脂[58]。
植物和動物之間存在共同演化的關係。植物果實能為動物提供營養,而動物在進食後會把種子排泄到較遠的地方,幫助物種傳播[59]。即使動物連同種子一起吃掉,也可能幫助植物傳播,因為種子有機會被完整地排出體外[60][61]。昆蟲是種子的主要攝食者[48],當中只有螞蟻能幫助傳播種子[62]。鳥類雖然是種子的主要傳播者[63],但牠們很少攝食種子,因為牠們多以厚實的鳥喙啄開種皮[64]。哺乳動物能以牙齒碾碎更大更硬的種子,因此會攝食更多類別的種子[65]。
動物
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動物能直接或間接地為其他生物提供食物。動物性食物可細分為肉類、蛋類、貝類、奶類[66]。它們是重要的蛋白質來源,含有人體必需的所有胺基酸,因此對他們而言是完全蛋白質[67]。4盎司(110克)的牛排、雞胸肉、豬排約有30克蛋白質;一隻大蛋有7克蛋白質;4盎司(110克)乾酪有15克蛋白質;一杯(約240毫升)奶約有8克蛋白質[67]。動物製品還含有卡路里、脂質、基本維生素、礦物質[67]。
奶類由乳腺產生,人類通常直接飲用,或把之加工成乾酪等奶制品;他們也會攝食鳥類等動物產下的蛋。花蜂會把花蜜濃縮成蜂蜜,人類則會利用蜂蜜為各種食物加添甜味。某些文化會攝食血液,像是以之增稠醬汁;把它們醃製儲存,以防糧食不足;把之製成血腸。部分文化會把動物血液用作燉菜——燉野兔便是其中一例[68]。
味覺
[编辑]動物通常有五種味覺:甜、酸、鹹、苦、鮮。味覺能幫助牠們分辨食物是有益還是有毒[69]。在經過演化後,動物通常在攝食能提供更多能量的食物時,感受到更好的味道,而其他食物則不然[70]。不過與其他動物相比,人類更能對起初認為味道不好的食物產生興趣[69]。水雖為生存所必需,但它們本身無味[71]。
甜味主要由單醣或雙醣引起。葡萄糖、果糖、蔗糖都能引起甜味[72]。酸會引起酸味,例如柑橘類是酸味食物。食物受細菌感染而變質時,也會產生酸味,因此它在演化上具有一定意義[73]。鹹味主要由钠引起[74]。一般認為,感受鹹味的能力是為了促使會攝食植物的生物攝取足夠的鈉而演化出來。人類會為各種各樣的食物加鹽,以增加鹹味[75]。苦味會引起不快[76]。腐敗的脂肪、水解蛋白、植物生物鹼等毒素都會引起苦味;食物中的酚類化合物是苦味的一大來源。茶、巧克力、紅酒、很多蔬菜都會導致苦味[77]。鮮味主要由蛋白質引起[78]。乾酪、肉類、蘑菇都會引起鮮味[79]。

大多數動物的味蕾都位於口腔內。不過,一些昆蟲的味蕾位於腿部。另外,部分鱼的味蕾甚至會遍布全身[80][81]。貓、狗、雀鳥的味蕾數量相對較少(一隻雞約有30個)[82];成年人類則有2000至4000個[83];鯰魚則可高達每條過百萬個[81]。整體而言,植食性動物因要分辨植物是否有毒,故牠們的味蕾較肉食性動物為多[82]。哺乳动物的味覺不盡相同——一些啮齿目動物能為淀粉產生味覺;貓不能感受到甜味;鬣狗、海豚、海獅等肉食性動物只能感受到人類五味中的一味[84]。
消化
[编辑]消化指食物分解成各種營養素的過程[85]。它又可細分為機械性消化(咀嚼和蠕动)和化學性消化(消化酶和微生物分解)兩大類[86][87]。植食性動物和肉食性動物的消化系統有不少差異,因為植物性食物相對較難消化。植食性動物的口腔較適合於研磨咀嚼,肉食性的則較適合撕裂和咬噬[88]。不過前者的消化道相對較長,胃部也較大——這有助於消化植物中的纖維素[89][90]。
安全
[编辑]世界卫生组织指出,全球每年約有6億人因食用受污染的食物而染病,其中42萬人因此死亡[91][92]。腹瀉是最常見的症状。每年約有5.5億例腹瀉病例,23萬例因此死亡。5歲以下的兒童佔了4成的食源性疾病負擔,當中每年約125,000人因此死亡[92][93]。
参见
[编辑]参考文献
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