人
| 人[1] | |
|---|---|
| 泰国的成年阿卡人。左邊的是男性,右邊的則為女性。男性正拿著芭蕉植物的莖部去喂豬 | |
| 人類嬰兒剛誕生時的哭聲。 | |
| 科学分类 | |
| 界: | 动物界 Animalia |
| 门: | 脊索动物门 Chordata |
| 纲: | 哺乳纲 Mammalia |
| 目: | 灵长目 Primates |
| 科: | 人科 Hominidae |
| 属: | 人属 Homo |
| 种: | 人[1] H. sapiens
|
| 二名法 | |
| Homo sapiens Linnaeus, 1758
| |
| 2020年的各地人口密度 | |
| 異名 | |
|
异名[1]
| |
人(學名:Homo sapiens;英語:Humans),又稱人類[3],是灵长目下现存数量最多[4],分佈範圍最廣的物种[5]。人類體毛稀疏、習慣兩足步行、擁有比其他動物複雜的腦部[6]。他們亦發展出自己的文化和語言,並有着豐富的智力技能,促使他們實現技术革新。人類有著高度的社會性,傾向在大型而又複雜的社會群體中聚居。小至家庭,大至國族,都屬於人類群體的單位。他們還以科学、哲学、宗教來認識自身和世界[7][8][9]。
與其他靈長類動物相比,人腦當中跟高等認知相關的前額葉皮質更大更發達。他們擁有情节记忆、自我意識、後設認知、心智理論、意志、與其他動物不同的面部表情;同時亦能夠思考、想像、形成對各種事物的觀點。他們還具有预见能力,能想像自身在过去或未来的情景。因此,人類能夠改良各種技術,然後把有關資訊保存,傳授給下一代。這一現象在文化人類學中稱為棘轮效应。自20世紀以來,人類亦探索了世界上不同的地方——從深海到外太空。
人類是雜食性動物,能夠攝取多種源自動物和植物的物質,並懂得用火烹煮食材。一般而言,他們可在不進食的情況下最多生存八週。但若把情況換成不再補充任何水分,則一般只能生存三至四天,最多一週。他們一般具晝行性。人類分娩過程較其他物種危險,死亡和出現併發症的風險亦顯著較高。他們的後代在出生後需其他人照顧才能夠生存,多由父母兩方共同養育。
基因與環境共同塑造人類在生理、疾病易感性、心智功能、壽命等各方面的多樣性。即使如此,人類之間的基因平均相似度為99.5%至99.9%,非洲大陸的原生人群最具遺傳多樣性。男女之間有著不少差異。平均而言,男性肢體力量比女性高,女性比男性擁有更大比例的體脂肪。女性到了50歲左右會進入更年期,不能夠再懷孕。接近所有人群的女性都有着較男性長的預期壽命,不過她們年老時比男性更易出現身心障礙,這可能與激素、炎症反應、文化、行為方面的差異有關。男性和女性的性別角色並非總是一成不變,而是隨歷史而改變。許多社會一再出現挑戰主流性別規範的群體。
人類從數百萬年前非洲的其他人族物種演化而來。即使人亦可指人屬下的所有物種,但當中除現代人類(智人)外全都滅絕。智人在至少30萬年前出現,接着從非洲遷徙各地,取代各地的古人類族群,或與他們雜交。遠古時期的所有人類都以狩獵採集的方式獲得食物,這一情況在約1.2萬年前因農業的出現而轉變。於是人類開始定居、馴化其他動物,促使早期文明誕生。上述轉變也令食物供應量增加,人口聚集在更大更密集的社區,形成多個文明。1800年,世界人口可能突破10億,之後亦出現指數級的增長,在2022年突破80億大關。人口增長、工業化、土地開發、過度消耗、消耗化石燃料都會引起环境退化及污染,促使其他生物集體滅絕。
詞源定義

所有現代人類都屬於智人(Homo sapiens)這一物种。1758年,卡尔·林奈在他發表的著作《自然系統》中首度創造「Homo sapiens」這一用語[10]。屬名「Homo」在16世紀期間從拉丁語「homō」演變而來,用於代指任何性別的人類[11][12][13]。人亦可指人屬下的所有物種[14]。智人的學名「Homo sapiens」同樣存在「智者」之意[10]。另外,人屬下已滅絕的物種尼安德特人「究竟屬於人類的亞種還是獨立的物種?」這道問題仍沒有一致的看法[14]。
「Human」是源自古法語「humain」的中古英语。該法語則從拉丁语「hūmānus」演變而來——它是「homō」(「人類」)的形容詞變體[15]。英語的「Man」可以指該一物種整體,亦可專指男性。不過,事實上也可以泛指所有性別的個體[16]。
漢字中的「人」是象形文字,由甲骨文演變而來。甲骨文的「人」字形與側立伸手的人接近。之後金文和小篆亦有其蹤影。楷書以後,人字的下半部分字形變得跟人腿類似[17]。古代中國不強調人的整體性,故「人類」這一概念並不普及。它在《康熙字典》及19世紀上半葉的中英字典也沒有出現。19世纪晚期,《增订英华字典》等字典開始把「mankind」和「the human race」對譯為人類。中国人民大学历史学院教授徐浩認為由於《增订英华字典》的增訂者是日本人,故人類這一漢語的出現與日本當地的翻譯有關[18]。
雖然人類常在語言上把自己跟「動物」分開[19],但這仍屬普遍存在的誤解,因為人類本身就是動物[20]。另外,日常用法上也會把人(person)當作「人類」的同義詞使用。但在哲學上,是否所有人或所有存在知覺者都是具人格性的主體、人類能否失去作為人的資格(例如植物人的情況)、人在什麼時候開始能被視作人這幾道問題仍存在爭議[21]。
演化
人類是大型猿類(人猿總科當中的人科)的一種[22]。他們亦屬猿類譜系——先從长臂猿(长臂猿科)分化,之後再跟人猿(猩猩屬)分化,接著從大猩猩屬中分化,最後與黑猩猩屬(黑猩猩和倭黑猩猩)分化。最後那一次分化發生在約400萬至800萬年前[23][24]。在上述過程中,他們的2號染色體融合了其餘兩條染色體。最終使得人類比其他猿類少了一對染色體(前者23對,後者24對)[25]。上述分化發生後,人族再演化出許多物種,並至少出現了兩個屬。人屬當中除了智人外全都滅絕[26]。

人屬從南方古猿演化而來[27][28]。即使有關這一演化的過渡化石仍然稀少,不過人屬下的早期成員跟南方古猿共享某些共同特徵[29][30]。由於缺乏證據的關係,故兩者的具體分化時間仍沒有共識[31]。一些使用分子鐘技術的研究估計,人屬在430萬至256萬年前出現[32]。另一些研究則認為某些早期「人屬物種」不能被歸類為人屬,並把有關估計推後至約187萬年前[31]。
現存最早的人屬標本為於埃塞俄比亚出土的LD 350-1,它可追溯至280萬年前。至於屬下最早期的物種能人和盧多爾夫人則在230萬年前演化形成[30]。直立人在200萬年前出現,是第一種離開非洲,向歐亞大陸各地擴散的古人類物種[33]。直立人也是第一個跟人類有著類近體型呈現的物種。留在非洲的直立人後代(海德堡人或罗德西亚人)之後演化成智人——他們在至少30萬年前出現[34]。智人接著從非洲遷徙各地,取代各地的古人類族群,或與他們雜交[35][36][37]。人類大約在16萬至7萬年前(甚或更早)展現出行为现代性[38][39]。這一變化可能與中晚更新期非洲的自然氣候變化有關[40]。
人類離開非洲的浪潮至少可分成兩波。第一波發生在約13萬至10萬年前。第二波發生在約7萬至5萬年前,朝著南方擴散[41][42]。智人離開非洲後,他們的活動痕跡遍及南極外的所有大陸和較大的島嶼。他們在12.5萬年前抵達歐亞大陸[43][44],之後亦抵達澳洲(約6.5萬年前)[45];美洲(約1.5萬年前);夏威夷群島、復活節島、马达加斯加、新西兰等偏遠島嶼(公元300年至1280年)[46][47]。
人類在演化過程中曾與多個近緣種雜交[48][49][50]。針對人類基因組的研究顯示,這一情況甚為普遍[51]。他們的DNA亦提供支持上述結論的證據——撒哈拉以南非洲以外的所有人類族群基因都有一部分源自尼安德塔人。古人類近緣種把HLA基因貢獻了給他們[48][52][53]。
人類的形態、成長、生理、行为都跟「與黑猩猩的最後共同祖先」有着不少差異——例如體毛較稀疏[54]、習慣以直立方式行走、腦部體積較大、兩性間的身體差異減少。這些變化之間的關係尚有爭議[55]。
人科下的物種分類缺乏共識[56],下方的系統發生樹(經簡化)據多個來源繪製[26][57][58][59][60]:
| 人猿總科 Hominoidea |
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歷史
史前時代

遠古時期的所有人類都以狩獵採集的方式獲得食物,這一情況在約1.2萬年前出現轉變[61][62]。新石器革命(农业的出現)始於西亚,並在接下來的數千年間橫跨旧大陆的大部分地區[63]。农业亦獨立起源於中部美洲(約6000年前)[64]、中國[65][66]、巴布亚新几内亚[67]、非洲萨赫勒和苏丹草原地區[68][69][70]。
於是人類開始定居、驯化其他動物、使用由金屬製成的工具,令食物首次出現剩餘。農業和定居生活也促使早期文明誕生[71][72][73]。
古代

公元前40世纪,城市革命在苏美尔等城邦國家的發展下誕生[74]。約公元前3000年,蘇美爾人發明了最早的文字[75]。同期發展的主要文明有古埃及和印度河流域文明[76]。隨著時間發展,它們之間開始出現貿易關係,並發明車輪、犁、船帆等技術[77][78][79][80]。公元前3000年左右,小北文明興起,成為美洲最古老的複雜文明[81]。同一時期的人類也開始研究天文學和數學,並建造胡夫金字塔[82][83][84]。有證據顯示,這些文明可能因持續百年左右的嚴重乾旱而走向衰落[85]。不過乾旱過後人類也建立了其他文明——巴比倫人漸漸成為美索不達米亞的主宰[86],同時波弗蒂角文化、米诺斯文明、商朝等文明亦在其他地方崛起[87][88][89]。約公元前1200年發生的青銅時代晚期崩潰導致多個文明消失,成為希腊黑暗时代降臨的標記[90][91]。人類於是開始大規模以鐵器代替青銅,步入铁器时代[92]。
公元前5世紀,史學正式奠基,使得當時的生活情景更能清晰地流傳後世[93]。公元前8世紀至6世紀,歐洲步入古典时代,古希腊和古罗马繁榮發展[94][95]。其他文明及後也有所發展。瑪雅文明開始建立城市和複雜的曆法[96][97]。在非洲,阿克苏姆王国取代日漸衰落的庫施王國,推動印度與地中海之間的貿易發展[98]。在西亞,阿契美尼德王朝建立的中央集權制成為後世眾多帝國的模仿對象[99];而印度笈多王朝和中國汉朝則迎來盛世[100][101]。
中古時期

476年,西羅馬帝國滅亡,歐洲踏入中世纪[102]。基督教和羅馬天主教會成為權威的來源,同時亦提供教育服務[103]。在中東地區,伊斯兰教成為主流宗教,並傳播到北非,令它步入黃金時代。在該一時代,伊斯蘭世界形成了獨特的生活方式,建筑技術出現不少進展;古代科技亦有所復興[104][105]。基督教與穆斯林世界之間最終爆發衝突。為了從穆斯林手上奪回圣土,歐洲各地勢力相繼展開十字軍東征[106]。
200年至900年期間,中部美洲正處於古典時期[107]。800年左右,較為複雜的密西西比社會開始出現[108]。13至14世紀期間,蒙古帝国征服歐亞大陸的大部分地區[109]。同一時期,马里帝国成為非洲最大的帝國,版圖從塞內甘比亞延伸到象牙海岸[110]。图伊汤加帝国亦在大洋洲崛起,版圖擴展到南太平洋眾多島嶼[111]。到了15世紀後期,阿茲特克和印加帝國分別成為中部美洲和安第斯的最大勢力[112]。
現代
歐洲和近東在君士坦丁堡陷落及奥斯曼帝国崛起後,步入近世時期(约1450年至1800年)[113]。與此同時,日本步入江户时代[114]、清朝在中國建立[115]、莫卧儿帝国統治印度大部分地區[116]。15世紀左右,歐洲發生文艺复兴運動[117],當地人也開始探索及殖民新地區(大航海時代)[118]。結果他們在美洲建立了殖民地[119],並引起哥倫布大交換[120]。上述擴張令大西洋奴隸貿易盛行[121],美洲原住民被歐洲人屠殺[122]。同一時期的科學亦迎來革命,数学、力学、天文學、生理学皆出現突破性的發展[123]。

1789年至1914年,人類社會處於漫长的十九世纪[124][125][a]。工业及科技革命帶來了生產技術的發展[129][130][131]。在啟蒙時代理念的影響之下,歐洲及美洲發生一系列政治革命[132]。19世紀初,拿破崙戰爭在歐洲肆虐[133]、西班牙失去了大多新大陸的殖民地[134]、歐洲各國不斷向非洲擴張——在不到50年的時間內,他們控制的土地範圍從10%提升至接近90%[135]。除此之外,大洋洲也成為歐洲殖民者的目標[136]。19世紀期間,大英帝国成為了世界上最大的帝國[137]。
1914年,第一次世界大战爆發,估計造成1000萬至2250萬人死亡[138]: 308 [139][140][141][142]。戰爭完結後,國家之間繼續對立。加上1930年代的全球經濟危機令矛盾加劇,最終引發第二次世界大战[138]: 301–302、312 ——世界上幾乎所有國家都有參戰[143]。
1945年,第二次世界大戰結束,美国[144]及苏联成為餘下的超级大国。兩國為爭奪國際影響力,而開始冷战——期間它們曾就核軍備和航天實力展開競賽。最後以苏联解体作結[145][146]。現今互联网及電腦的發展改寫了人類的生活方式[138]: 195–196 ,世界比以往聯繫得更緊密[147]。
棲息地與人口
| 世界人口 | 2024年:約82億[148] |
|---|---|
| 人口密度 | 按總面積計算:約16人/平方公里[b] 按總土地面積計算:約55人/平方公里[c] |
| 人口最多的城市[d] | 雅加达、达卡、東京、德里、上海、广州、开罗、马尼拉、加尔各答、首爾 |
早期人類聚居地必須靠近水源,並需依賴其他自然资源來達到自给自足,比如能被狩獵的獵物群,或用於種植農作物和放牧的耕地[151]。然而,現今人類有能力透過科技、灌溉、城市规划、建筑施工、伐木等手段,改變自身的棲息地[152]。自然灾害仍然影響人類的聚居地。貧窮人口更易受災害影響,因為在不少地方,他們都較多居住於更高風險的區域,而且居所的建造物料質量普遍較低[153]。人类會為各種各樣的理由而聚居或刻意改變自身的棲息地,像是提供或獲得保護、增加舒適度、累積財富、拓展食物來源、提升美感、增加知識、分享資源[154]。人類對環境造成極大影響——人口增長、工業化、土地開發、過度消耗、消耗化石燃料都會引起环境退化及污染,促使其他生物集體滅絕[155][156]。
即使對地球上許多極端環境都缺乏耐受性,人类仍然是擁有高度適應能力的物種[157]。人類會以各種工具及服装來提升自己對不同溫度、濕度、海拔的耐受性[157][158]。因此,热带雨林、荒漠、極度寒冷的北极地区、受到嚴重污染的城市都可以见到人类的活动痕迹。其他物種的適應力通常較人類低,只能生存在少數地理區域[159]。不過人口並非平均分佈在地球每一處表面,每一地區的人口密度都有不同,海洋等地更是接近無人居住[157][160]。2024年,估計48.1億人住在亞洲;其餘的則住在非洲(15.1億人)、歐洲(7.46億人)、北美洲(6.13億人)、南美洲(4.36億人)、大洋洲(4610萬人)[161]。
自20世纪以来,人類探索了世界上不同的地方——從深海到外层空间。人類逗留在這些惡劣環境時需面對各種限制,而且成本高昂。因此,人类通常只為滿足科學、軍事、产业上的需求而以較短的時間停留在這些環境[162]。除了親身登陸月球外,人类還制造了无人航天器以探索其他天體[163][164][165]。自2000年開始,他們亦駐留国际空间站,在太空中不斷活動[166]。

估計農業剛出現時(公元前1萬年左右)的全球人口介乎100萬至1500萬之間[168][169]。公元400年,羅馬人口可能落在50萬至75萬之間[170]。腺鼠疫最早可追溯至公元6世紀,並令當時人口減少約50%;黑死病則奪去了歐亞大陸和北非7500萬至2億人的性命[171]。1800年,世界人口可能突破了10億大關,之後亦出現指數級的增長——在1930年來到20億,之後隨時間而增至30億(1960年)、40億(1975年)、50億(1987年)、60億(1999年)[172]。最近兩次突破大關的年份是2011年(70億)[173]和2022年(80億)[174]。人口在1804年才突破10億,之後僅用207年就來到70億[175]。2018年,估計人類的總碳生物量約有6000萬噸,比所有非人類飼養的哺乳動物總碳生物量多出約10倍[167]。
2018年,全球有42億人(55%)居住在城市地區,與1950年(7.51億人)相比呈上升趨勢[176]。 城市化程度較高的地區有北美洲(82%)、拉丁美洲(81%)、歐洲(74%)和大洋洲(68%)。全球34億農村人口有接近90%住在亞洲及非洲[176]。城市人需面對污染及犯罪等各種問題[177]。
生物學
形態與生理

人類生理整體上與其他動物的生理呈高度同源。人類齒列就像狹鼻小目下的其他物種,呈2.1.2.32.1.2.3模式。與其他靈長類動物相比,人腭較短,牙齒也較細小。在靈長類動物當中,他們也是唯一一種物種擁有短小且相對平整的犬齒。人類牙齒密集,年幼者牙齒脫落後形成的空隙通常很快被重新長出來的牙齒填補。人類正逐漸失去第三大臼齒。部分人甚至不會長出這一類牙齒[178]。
人類跟黑猩猩共同擁有阑尾、靈活的肩關節、能以向相反方向施力的方式抓握東西的手指,而且都缺乏尾巴[179][180]。其他猿類動物的胸腔較接近漏斗狀;而人類因需適應兩足步行時的呼吸,而演化出偏向桶狀的胸腔[181]。除了兩足步行和腦部體積外,人類跟黑猩猩在嗅覺、聽覺、蛋白質的消化能力上都有顯著差異[182]。雖然人類毛囊密度與其他猿類動物相當,但他們的體毛大多是稀疏短小的毳毛[183][54]。他們亦有約200萬個汗腺;而黑猩猩的汗腺遠少於此,且主要分布在手掌和腳底[184]。
估計成年人平均身高分別為約171厘米(男性)和約159厘米(女性)[185]。部分中年人可能會變矮,這一情況尤其常見於超高齡者身上[186]。人類可能受營養、醫療系統、生活條件等因素影響,平均長得比過去高[187]。推算2005年全球人類平均體重為62公斤[188]。體重和身型因人而異,而且就像其他特質一樣受遺傳易感性及環境影響[189][190]。
與其他動物相比,人類能更快及更準確地把物品投擲[191]。他們也比較擅長長跑,不過短跑則較其他動物慢[192][182]。他們體毛稀疏,而且汗腺分泌較旺盛,因此在長跑時較難出現熱衰竭[193]。相比其他猿類,人類的心臟有著更大的每搏输出量和心输出量,主動脈也較大[194][195]。
基因

人類是雙倍體真核生物[196][197]。除了紅血球外,人的体细胞一般含有23組(46條)染色体[198][199]。組內一條染色體源自父親,另一條源自母親[200]。配子則只含23條染色體[201]。體細胞的染色體當中有22對為常染色体,1對則為性染色體[202]。人類的性別決定主要由Y染色體上的SRY基因介導[203]。一般而言,上述過程主要跟從XY性别决定系统(性染色體為XX,則發育為女性;性染色體為XY,則發育為男性)[204]。過程中若SRY基因參與表達,則會讓胎兒發育成男性[205]。某些人會因為染色體異常而不孕不育[206]。基因與环境共同塑造人類在生理、疾病易感性、心智功能、身高等各方面的多樣性[207][208][209];不過兩者的具體影響尚未完全釐清[207]。
每個人的基因都是獨一無二的。即使是同卵雙胞胎,他們的基因都不完全相同[210]。不過,人類之間的基因平均相似度為99.5%至99.9%[211][212]。種族或族群是影響健康的社會決定因素,本身不跟任何的生物特質掛勾[213][214]。相比其他物種,人類DNA的變異程度較少,顯示晚更新期(約10萬年前)的人類曾經歷一次种群瓶颈,令可繁殖配偶數量銳減[215][216]。人類亦受自然选择影響——現有證據顯示他們的基因組某些區域在過去1.5萬年表現出定向選擇模式[217]。
大多數基因组在2003年已完成定序。完整测序則於2022年首次完成[218]。根據2023年的估計,人類約有19,500個蛋白質编码基因,有著各種變體。至於非編碼核糖核酸則數量未知[219]。非洲人獨有的基因變異數量高於其他族群。非洲人與非洲人以外的族群亦共享不少常見的基因變異,不過非洲人、大洋洲人、美洲人的獨有基因變異數量較多[220]。遺傳學家在比對僅以母系遺傳的方式獲得的线粒体DNA後,結論道:所有現代人類都從最後一位女性共同祖先(粒線體夏娃)獲得遗传标记。而她大約在9萬至20萬年前出現[221][222][223][224]。
生命週期

人類主要以性交後體內受精的方式繁殖,不過他們也能改用辅助生殖技术來達至同樣目的[225]。人類胚胎會在孕期的首八週內發育。到了第九週,則發育成胎兒[226]。平均孕期為280天,並存在誤差[227]。若胎兒因為醫學理由而需提前出生,那麼便可能會進行引產或剖宫产[228]。已開發國家的嬰兒通常在出生時重3—4公斤(7—9磅),高47—53厘米[229][230]。不過,低收入和中等收入国家較常出現低出生体重儿,此現象會對嬰兒日後的發展及健康構成不良影響[231]。
人類的分娩過程較其他物種危險,死亡和出現併發症的風險亦顯著較高[232]。與其他靈長類動物相比,人類胎兒的頭部大小較貼近骨盆[233]。這一現象的成因尚未完全釐清[e],不過能夠確定的就是人類在分娩時會感受到極大痛苦[235]。隨著醫學進步,已開發國家的成功分娩率在整個20世紀期間呈上升趨勢[236]。不過對低收入国家而言,懷孕和自然分娩繼續對孕产妇構成極大風險。2023年,它們的孕产妇死亡率(每10万活产346例)高於高收入国家(每10万活产10例)[237]。
人類後代多由父母兩方共同養育——這跟其他靈長類動物把大多照顧任務留給母親的做法不同[238]。人類在出生後需其他人照顧才能夠生存,之後他們會不斷成長,通常在15至17歲期間達至性成熟[239][240][241]。人生可分成三至十二個階段。最常見的分法是把人分為嬰兒、儿童、青少年、成年人、老年人[242]。每一階段的維持時間因文化及時代而異,不過一般都把青少年期界定為急速成長的階段[243]。女性到了50歲左右會進入更年期,不能夠再懷孕[244]。更年期可能提高了女性整體的繁殖成功率,因為它讓她們不再於老年時繼續生育,改把更多的資源和時間投放在現存的下一代身上(祖母假說)[245][246]。
人的壽命主要由基因和生活方式共同決定[247][248]。女性平均壽命較男性長[249],不過她們年老時比男性更易出現身心障礙,這可能與激素、炎症反應、文化、行為方面的差異有關[247]。截至2024年[update],全球出生時平均預期壽命分別為76年(女性)和71年(男性)[250][251]。不同地方的人類預期壽命亦有顯著差異,並與經濟發展水平有關。例如在2021年,日本出生時平均預期壽命為約85年,乍得和奈及利亞為約52年[252]。世界各地都普遍面對人口老龄化現象。有關趨勢先見於高收入国家,後蔓延至低收入和中等收入国家。2025年,世界衛生組織預計2050年80岁的人口會比2020年增加两倍[253]。2024年,聯合國估計全球約有586,217個仍然在世的人瑞(100歲或以上的人)[254]。
| 嬰兒 | 青春期前的儿童 | 青少年 | 成年人 | 老年人 |
|---|
食性

人類是雜食性動物[255],能夠攝取多種源自動物和植物的物質[256][257]。他們有著各種各樣的膳食模式。有人完全拒絕食用動物性食物,也有人主要攝食肉類[258]。部分人會因飲食限制而出現營養不良。不過,也有人能達至營養均衡[259]。飲食在人類文化中佔有一席之位,食品科學亦因此而誕生[260]。
直到農業出現之前,所有智人都僅使用狩獵採集的方式獲取食物[260]。他們能從自然界獲取坚果、蔬菜、水果、根茎、块茎、野生草本植物、浆果等食物;同時捕殺能夠食用的獵物及鱼类[261]。直立人可能已懂得用火烹煮食材[262]。人類在約11,700年前驯化了野生植物,农业亦隨之漸漸發展起來[263][264]。人類的膳食模式出現變化後,他們的生理功能也可能隨之而轉變。例如酪農業普及後,人類開拓出一條嶄新而又豐富的食物供應鏈,令一些成年人演化出消化乳糖的能力[265][266]。食物種類及備餐方式因時間、地點、文化而異[267][268]。
一般而言,人類可在不進食的情況下最多生存八週。具體時間長短受體脂肪量影響[269]。但若把情況換成不再補充任何水分,則一般只能生存三至四天,最多一週[270]。根據2020年的估計,每年約有900萬人的死因直接或間接與挨餓有關[271][272]。世界衛生組織等估計,2024年約1.502亿5岁或以下的儿童出現發育遲緩[273]。不過在1990年至2022年期間,全球肥胖人口呈上升趨勢[274]。2022年,全球8.9亿成人處於肥胖狀態[275]。在攝取的卡路里多於消耗的情況下,便會導致肥胖[276]。
生物變異

人類是一種擁有多種變異的物種。成年人的身高接近正态分布。2016年,綜合多地量度結果的研究顯示,95%成年男性的身高落在163.2厘米至193.6厘米之間,95%成年女性則落在150.6厘米至178.84厘米之間[185][f]。身高會因為性別、族裔、血統等因素而出現差異[277][278]。體型有一部分受基因影響,同時亦受飲食、運動、睡眠模式等環境因子影響[279]。

有證據顯示,人類基因已為適應外部環境而出現變異。在那些酪農業已運作一段長時間,而且較習慣攝取牛奶的人群當中,讓成人能夠消化乳糖的基因分佈得更廣[280]。鐮刀型紅血球疾病較常見於疟疾已成風土病的地區,可能有助患者更好地對抗疟疾[281][282]。若某一人群長時間住在特定的氣候環境,往往也會演化出適合該環境的表型——例如在寒冷地區居住者體型偏向矮小及壯實,在炎熱地區居住者體型偏瘦長[278]。某些人群已因為特定環境而演化出較獨特的適應特徵。例如巴瑤人的生理特徵較適合於海洋生活及自由潛水[283]。
人類有著各種各樣的髮色,像是紅色、金色、棕色、黑色。當中又以黑色最為常見[284]。髮色受黑色素含量影響。隨著年紀增長,黑色素的生成量會漸漸減少,令頭髮變灰變白。膚色亦有深淺之分,也有人偏向白色[285]。膚色與紫外线強度有關,因此有關差異往往是地域性的,於赤道周邊地區生活者的膚色普遍較深[286]。深膚色可能是為抵擋阳光中的紫外線輻射而演化出來的表型[287]。淺膚色有助人體利用阳光合成维生素D[288]。人的皮膚也能在接觸紫外线的情況下變得深色[289][290]。
人與人之間的差異較多發生在個體層面,地理族群之間的差異相對為少[285][291][292]。大多人類變異以連續體的方式分佈,而且沒有明確的界線劃分[293][294][286][295]。基因學證據顯示,不論怎樣界定族群,同族群內的個體差異,往往不亞於族群間的差異[211][296][297]。非洲、澳洲、南亞的深膚色族群之間不存在密切的親緣關係[286][298]。
研究顯示,非洲大陸的原生人群最具遺傳多樣性[299]。人類愈遷離非洲,多樣性則愈低——這可能是因為他們在過程中出現种群瓶颈[300][301]。這些人之後與各地的近緣種雜交,獲得他們的一部分基因。即使非洲人保有很少古人類基因,但他們保有許多歐亞大陸人群沒有的相關變異基因;整體而言,人類大多變異基因並非源自其他近緣種[220] 。此外,尼安德塔人與非洲人的混血程度可能一直以來被低估[302]。撒哈拉以南非洲的史前人類可能與某一未知的古人類族群雜交,之後後者在尼安德塔人與現代人類分化之前,便已跟現代人類分化[220][303]。
人類是雄雌異體的物種,這意味著他們可大致分為男性和女性[304][305][306]。男女之間有著不少差異[307][308]。男性平均比女性高12–13厘米[309][185],或約7%至9%[185][310]。女性平均比男性擁有更大比例的體脂肪[311],也較容易出現肥胖[312]。男性肌肉量較多,肌肉纖維較粗。女性平均上肢力量為男性的50%至60%,平均下肢力量為男性的60%至70%[313]。在同一族群當中,女性的膚色較男性淺。這可能是因為女性需更多的維生素D來應付懷孕和哺乳期間的需求[314]。由於兩者的染色體有著不少差異,故部分與X染色體或Y染色體有關的疾病只影響其中一方[315]。在控制體重和體積這兩項因素後,男性聲線通常比女性低八度[316]。接近所有人群的女性都有著較长的预期寿命[317]。間性人則為人類當中較為罕見的變異群體[318][319]。
心理

人腦是負責思考、計劃、產生認知等功能的器官[320][321]。廣義上,所有心理過程都能稱作心智[322];而心理学則是研究心智和相關行為的學術領域[323]。與其他靈長類動物相比,人腦當中跟高等認知相關的前額葉皮質更大更發達[324][325]。因此,人類常會宣稱他們比其他已知的物種更聰明[326]。不過,目前仍很難客觀地界定「什麼是智力」;在進行某些任務時,其他動物會利用感官達至人類以上的水平[327]。
雖然某些特質不是人類獨有,但它們的確令後者比其他動物更突出[328]。他們可能是唯一一種擁有情节记忆的動物,並會想像自身在过去或未来的情景[329][330]。人類臉部表情的一些特徵與其他動物不同[331],他們亦是唯一一種會因為感情而流淚的物種[332]。人類是少數能在鏡子面前辨識自身虛像的動物[333]。有意見認為他們是唯一一種擁有心智理論的動物,不過這一觀點仍有爭議[334][335]。
睡眠與做夢
人類一般具晝行性[336]。不過人與人之間的晝夜節律會因遺傳因子而有所差異,並可能因為跟社會習慣不同而導致晝夜節律失調[337]。人類所需的睡眠時間同樣因人而異[338]。即使睡眠不足會對健康構成負面影響,但不少人還是花較短的時間在睡眠上。研究顯示,長期把成人的睡眠時間限制在每天四小時跟身心方面的轉變有關——具體而言則包括身體舒適度和記憶力下滑,疲勞程度及侵犯行為增加[339]。
人類睡覺時會做夢,當中他們的腦海會產生一系列的影像和聲音[340]。夢是腦幹、丘腦、邊緣系統、前額葉皮質等腦區共同配合下引發的結果[341]。他們在快速動眼期及非快速動眼期都會做夢,然而醒來後憶述前者的夢時多能夠連成故事,後者則只能憶述一個情景或想法[342]。多數10歲或以上的人至少每晚做四至六場夢[343]。若醒來時沒有馬上把夢紀錄,那麼不論夢境內容,很多人都會最終忘掉[342]。夢境能激發人的創意或靈感[344]。
意识及思考
人類意識是個體對其內部和外部存在的感知或认识[345]。即使哲學家和科學家用了多個世紀來分析、定義、詮釋、辯論,但他們還是不能夠掌握意識的本質[346],成為「我們生活中最熟悉卻又最神秘」的概念[347]。即使是與意識相關的具體研究範圍,也有不同的意見。一些哲學家認為意識可分為現象意識(感官經驗本身)和取用意識(用於推理或直接控制行為的意識)[348]。它有時會被視作心智的同義詞,有時則被視作心智的其中一環。歷史上,意識曾與內省、個人思想、想像、意志劃上聯繫[349]。如今,意識往往被定義為包含某種經驗、認知、感覺、知覺的概念。它的真身可能是「認識」、後設認知、自我意識[350]。意識可能有多個水平或階段[351];亦可能只有一種意識,但它本身擁有多項特徵[352]。
認知是透過思想、經驗、感官獲得知識和理解的過程[353]。人腦透過感官感知外部世界,繼而形成對各種事物的觀點[354]。思考的本質是心理學等領域的焦點。認知心理學是研究認知及與行為相關的心理過程的學術領域[355]。发展心理学則會研究人類如何在世界當中形成某套認知、理解、行為,並關注上述過程怎樣隨年紀而改變[356][357]。心理學家已製作出各種各樣的智力測驗,並提出智商這一概念,用以評估人類的相對智力及在人口當中的分布情況[358]。
動機與情绪

人類動機至今尚有未能完全解明的地方。在心理學當中,马斯洛需求层次理论是得到最廣泛應用的相關理論。它按需求的滿足難度來把它們從低至高排列,而人類則需按照順序來滿足[359]。從哲學角度而言,人類需運用各種能力來達至目標;而動機則是他們在上述過程中展現的投入或退縮。除此之外,激勵和偏好本身也會構成影響;對兩者之間有著任何連結的認知同樣如是。意志力也是潛在的影響因子。理想情況下,動機和意志會一同確保人們以理想的方式選擇、追求、實現目標。上述功能始於童年,並受社會化影響而終生維持[360]。
情緒是跟神經系統有關的生物狀態[361][362],由神經生理方面的變化引起。後者跟思想、感受、行為反應、愉快或不愉快的程度有關[363][364]。心境、气质、人格、性情、創意會影響情緒,反之亦然[365]。情緒會顯著影響人類行為和學習能力[366]。人類若按照極端或失控的情緒行動,那麼便有機會犯下罪行,令社會動盪[367]。情商跟侵略行為呈負相關[368]。
人類會認定快樂、感兴趣、滿足等情緒為愉快的;與之相反,焦慮、悲傷、憤怒、抑鬱等情緒則會為他們帶來不快[369]。幸福是情緒的一種,哲學上常會討論怎樣才算是幸福。一些人把它定義作體驗正面情感的同時,避免負面情感出現[370][371]。也有人認為它是一種對生活滿意度或生活质量的評價[372]。不過,當人類認為有必要時,體驗某些負面情緒可能有助他們達至幸福[373]。
性與愛

人類的性包含一系列與生物、情欲、肢體親密、情感親密、社交、宗教靈性有關的感受和行為[374][375]。由於性本身是廣義詞,而且意思會隨著時代而改變,故它並沒有完全精確的定義[375]。身體或生物上的性主要與人類繁殖有關——人类性反应周期也包括在這一層面[374][375]。性亦對哲學、法律、政治、文化、倫理道德、宗教產生一定影響,反之亦然[374][375]。男性自慰的頻密度和性欲普遍較女性高[376]。
人類性取向是一道連續的光譜,他們可處於當中的任何一點[377]。大多數人是异性恋者[378][379]。儘管其他動物都會發生同性性行為,但根據現有知識,只有人類和綿羊會排他地只跟同性發生性關係[378]。大多證據支持性取向的形成具生物性基礎[378];即使有文化對同性戀比較包容,但當地同性戀者數量基本與其他社會無異[379][380]。神经科学及遗传学的證據也顯示,人類的性整體亦受生物性因子影響[381]。
「愛」最常見的定義為一種強烈的情感吸引或情感依戀。愛的對象可以是人類,也可以是非人類(例如物體、理念、政治或靈性上的強烈聯繫)[382]。若他們心生浪漫之愛,多巴胺、去甲肾上腺素、血清素、催产素等神經遞質便會經中皮質邊緣路徑刺激腦部的犒赏系统。上述過程可能會產生心跳过速、食慾不振、失眠、高度欣快等副作用[383]。
文化
| 最多人會説的語言(2026年)[384] | 英语、官话、印地语、西班牙语、标准阿拉伯语、法语、孟加拉语、葡萄牙語、印度尼西亚语、乌尔都语 |
|---|---|
| 最多人信奉的宗教(2020年)[385] | 基督教、伊斯兰教、印度教、佛教、无宗教 |
人類有著豐富的智力技能,促使他們實現技術上的進步,主宰生物圈[386]。人类能夠傳授普遍適用的資訊、重複運用從屬子句來產生及傳達複雜的概念、以簡單的物理概念設計出能夠使用的工具、在野外烹煮食材——除了已滅絕的人科物種外,沒有其他物種能夠做到這些[387][388][389][390][391]。人類社會能夠把資訊保存,然後傳授給下一代。在文化人類學中,這一現象稱為棘轮效应[392]。一旦人們掌握了某項技術,那麼要讓他們集體忘掉就會變得相當困難。與此同時,有關記憶能夠幫助他們掌握更為複雜的技術[392]。教育能夠幫助承傳文化及鞏固民族認同[393]。人類與大多動物不同的地方還有懂得生火[394]、排列音位使它們表達出特定意思[395]、发声学习[396]。
語言

儘管很多動物都能夠互相交流,人類語言卻是獨特的[397]。它既是人類的定義性特徵[398][399],又是普世文化通則[400]。其他動物的交流系統充滿限制,而人類則能利用有限的元素產生無限的意義組合[401][402]。人類語言具有移位性,令他們能夠共同想像及描述一些不在眼前的事物[178]。
語言具備情态獨立性,與其他溝通方式不同。它可應用於各種媒介——如口語使用聽覺情態、手語或文字使用視覺情態、盲文使用觸覺情態[403]。語言是人類溝通的主要方式,同時能夠幫助構建及強化群體认同[404]。民族語言網的數據顯示,人類仍在使用的語言有7170種[405]。
藝術
人類藝術能以各種形式呈現,當中包括視覺、文學、表演。視覺藝術的例子有绘画、电影、雕塑、時尚設計、建筑[406];文學藝術的例子有散文、戲劇、詩歌;表演藝術的例子有戲劇、音乐、舞蹈[407][408]。人類常會在創作時整合不同的藝術領域(音樂錄像便屬於這一情況)[409]。烹饪、电子游戏、医学有時會被歸類作藝術[410][411][412]。藝術可用於提供娛樂、傳達知識、表達政治觀點[413][414]。

艺术是人類的定義性特徵;有證據顯示創意跟語言有關[415]。在現代人類首次出現的30萬年前,直立人便懂得於貝殼上雕刻——根據現有知識,它們是最古老的人屬藝術品[416][g]。智人創作的最古老藝術品為於南非洞穴發現的珠子和繪畫,它們最少可追溯至約7.5萬年前[418][419]。根據現有假說,人類發展出藝術創作能力的原因可能包括:讓他們更有效地解決問題、促使人類互相合作、幫助他們控制或影響他人、幫助他們尋找伴侶[420]。藝術培養的想像力能夠跟邏輯相輔相成,並可能令早期人類在演化上佔優[415]。
人類從事音樂活動的證據可追溯至石洞壁畫出現之前;音樂在差不多所有文化都佔據一席之位[421]。音樂流派及民樂種類繁多。人類的音樂技能跟社會行為有關[421]。研究顯示,人類的腦部會跟節奏和拍子同步(共乘原理)[422]。舞蹈同樣存在於所有文化當中[423],它的出現可能有助早期人類溝通[424]。人類在聽歌看舞時,眶额皮质等跟愉快有關的腦區會受到刺激[425]。
人類不能自然地習得讀寫文字的方法,而是需別人教導——這跟說話的情況不同[426]。至少在5.1萬年前繪製的石洞壁畫便出現了類人生物跟豬互動的場景。截至2024年,它是已知最早的人類視覺敍事作品[427]。約4000年前,《吉尔伽美什史诗》首次被刻在古巴比倫泥板上,是現存最早的敘事文學作品[428]。除了傳遞知識外,創作及分享虛構故事可能有助提升人類溝通的能力、更願意與他人合作、令聽眾獲得道德教訓[429][430]。
工具與技術
至少在250萬年前,原始人便懂得使用石器[432]。運用及製作工具的能力曾被視為人類演化的重要一環[433];甚有意見認為,與其他特質相比,它更能定義什麼是人類[434]。約180萬年前,人類技術變得更為複雜[434]。至少在40萬年前,他們可能學會用火[435][h]。公元前40世紀期間,車輪及輪式車輛在多個地區同時出現[78]。隨著技術發展,人類始有能力開墾土地,驯化其他動物,為農業的出現打下基礎[436]。
中国發明了造纸术、印刷术、火藥、指南针等重要技術[437]。隨著冶炼技術發展,人類漸漸有能力鍛造青銅、鐵、钢。鋼鐵及後成為鐵路和摩天大樓的建造材料;製作其他產品時,也可能需用到它[438]。自動化机器在第一次工业革命期間改變了人類的生活方式[439]。現代技术的發展速度呈指數級向上趨勢[440]。20世紀期間出現重大革新的技术有電力供應、供水系統、電子元件、農業機械、互联网、飛機、电子计算机、汽车、高速公路、航天器、成像、家用電器、石化技術、光纖、核技术、电视[441][131]。
宗教與靈性

宗教有著多種定義[442]。它可定義為一套「具組織性的態度、信仰、實踐」[443]。不少宗教還為信仰者預備一套特定的道德原則[7]。科學界正努力研究首個宗教的歷史和演變[444][445][446]。現有證據顯示,宗教行為可追溯至旧石器时代中期(約20萬至4.5萬年前)[447]。它在演化過程中可能扮演促使人類更願意合作的角色[448]。
宗教能以各種形式呈現[442],可能包括跟来世[449]、生命起源[450]、宇宙本質及其終極命運(末世论)[451]、倫理道德有關的信念[452]。
儘管宗教虔誠度難以量化[453],但多數人表示他們持有某種形式的宗教或靈性信仰[454]。2020年,較大型的宗教群體有基督徒、穆斯林、印度教教徒、佛教徒;另外也有19億人口沒有宗教聯繫[385]。
科學與哲學

人類能夠在發明工具或提出科学规律後,把有關知識傳給下一代,讓他們能夠站在原有的知識上繼續發展傳承(累積性文化演化)[455]。這些累積下來的知識可用於驗證及解答各種問題,預測未來,推動人類不斷進步[456]。
首位科學家可能是亚里士多德[457]。在希臘化時代的科學浪潮興起前,他便已提出自己的一套科學思想[458]。中國汉朝及伊斯蘭黃金時代期間,科學取得不少進步[459][104]。文藝復興時期的尾聲迎來了一場科學革命,現代科學亦從革命中誕生[460]。
科学方法在一連串事件中誕生。它以觀察和實驗為基礎,是科學跟伪科学之間的其中一個重要分別[461]。人類對数学的理解是獨特的,其他動物最多表現出一定的數字認知[462]。科學主要分為關注形式系統的形式科學(例如逻辑和數學)、關注實際應用的應用科學(例如工程學和醫學)、建立在實證觀察之上的經驗科學。經驗科學又可細分為自然科学(例如物理学、化學、生物学)和社会科学(例如心理学、經濟學、社會學)[463]。
人類會利用哲學來嘗試了解與自身及世界有關的根本真理[9]。哲學探究在人類思想史佔據不可或缺的角色[464]。部分觀點把它形容為科學知識與宗教教義之間的「無人之境」[465]。哲學的主要分支有形上學、认识论、逻辑學、價值論(包括伦理学和美学)[466]。
社會

社會是由持續互動的人類構成的组织體系[467]。人類是高度社會性的動物,傾向在大型而又複雜的社會群體中聚居[468][467]。社會又根據所屬成員的收入、财富、權力、信譽等因素,來把他們劃分成不同的群體。社會階層和流動性因社會而異——這兩者在傳統社會及現代社會之間便已出現不少差異[469]。小至家庭,大至國族,都屬於人類群體的單位[470]: 96 [471]。第一個人類社會組織較有可能跟奉行狩獵採集生活的遊群接近[468]。
性別

一般而言,人類社會會以所屬成員的生理性別為基礎,來規範他們的行為及態度。人類亦會表達出不同的性別認同和角色,使之被劃分成陽剛和陰柔兩種氣質[472][473]。最常見的做法就是把人劃分成男女兩種性別[474],不過部分社會亦會承認第三性別[475],乃至第四及第五性別[476][477]。另一些社會則以非二元性別泛指「純粹男性或女性」以外的性別認同[478]。
不同的社會都把男女分成不同的性別角色,然後以此為基礎規範他們的行為、實踐、服装、權利、義務、特权、地位、權力。不論古今,大多社會的男性都享有比女性更多的權利及特權[479]。在特定社會當中,性別角色並非總是一成不變,而是隨歷史而改變[480]。許多社會一再出現挑戰主流性別規範的群體[481][482]。缺乏證據證明人類早期社會的性別角色是怎樣的。至少從旧石器时代晚期開始,早期现代人的性別角色就可能與現代甚為相似。尼安德塔人相對較缺乏明確的性別角色,使得男女之間少有行為差異[483]。
親屬
所有的人類社會都會按着「父母子孫」(血親)這些身份來建立社會關係,以此為基礎分門別類和得到承認。婚姻關係(姻親)也是如此。除此之外,亦有以收養或受洗儀式為基礎建立的擬親屬關係。上述關係統稱為親屬關係。許多社會都把親屬關係視為重要的構成單位,以此決定怎樣继承財產和地位[484]。亂倫禁忌為普世社會適用的文化通則。根據該一禁忌,某些親屬之間並不容許通婚。不過也有社會鼓勵一些親屬進入婚姻關係[485]。
人類性關係普遍建立在配偶关系之上——不過呈現方式各有不同,部分以連續多次的單配偶關係呈現,另一些則以多配偶形式呈現[486]。遺傳學證據顯示,人類在歷史上大部分時間都奉行一夫多妻制。不過到了新石器時代,社會漸漸從遊牧步向定居,單配偶制亦於同一時間開始普及[487]。科學家還以早期現代人的食指和無名指指長比,來間接推算他們在產前暴露於雄性激素的程度——因為他們已觀察到奉行一夫多妻制的人群食指和無名指指長比低於奉行一夫一妻制的。結果顯示更新世的現代人主要奉行一夫多妻制[488]。
族群
人類族群是根據與其他群體不同的共同特質而產生內部認同的社會群體。人們可能會依據傳統、祖先、語言、歷史、社會、文化、國族、宗教信仰、在某一區域受到的待遇來劃分族群[489][490]。族群與種族不同,後者只依據生物特徵劃分,但以兩者為基礎的社会待遇都是建构的[491]。為特定人口指定族群是一項複雜艱難的任務,因為族群內部也會作進一步細分,而且其構成可能隨時間改變[214]。它也沒有一套得到廣泛認可的定義[492]。族群的出現會顯著影響身份认同和政治上的团结。族群認同與19至20世紀期間民族國家崛起,成為主要的政治組織有關[493][494][495]。
政府與政治

隨著務農人口聚集在更大更密集的社區,不同群體之間的互動亦會日趨頻繁,令當地出現更大的管治需求[496]。當今人類已發展出相對容易脫離族群歸屬的能力,讓他們一旦認為離開某族群對自己有利,便會實行之[497]。這種認知彈性令人類能夠改變他們的政治立場。而認知彈性較高的人相對上較不支持威權主義和民族主義[498]。
政府會制定影響被管治者的法律和政策。人類歷史上出現了不同類型的政府,它們的權力分配及對人民的控制程度各異,控制手段也有不同[499]。《经济学人》表示,截至2021年[update],有45.7%的人類生活在實施了民主制度的社會,活在威权主义或混合政權下的則分別有37%和17%[500]。很多國家都會結成国际政治组织和聯盟。聯合國為最大規模的國際組織,共有193個成員國[501]。
經濟貿易

貿易指人們自願交換貨品和服務的過程。它在人類史上佔據一席之位。貿易讓智人比其他人科動物更有優勢[502]——現有證據顯示早期智人會依靠貿易路線來跟遠處的同類交換貨品和想法,讓他們能在收获不佳時透過貿易獲得其他團體的食物,並促成文化爆發。已滅絕的尼安德特人則沒建立這種貿易網絡[503][504]。早期貿易路線較短,主要交換黑曜岩等製造工具的原材料[505]。到了古羅馬時代和中世紀,最主要的長途貿易路線都用於运送香料等食物和奢侈品[506]。
人類早期的经济活動更有機會以贈送禮物為主,而非以物易物[507]。早期的貨幣即為商品。比如牛隻便是最古老的貨幣;貝殼之後取代其位置,成為最通用的貨幣[508]。貨幣接著演變成由政府發行的硬幣、紙幣、數位貨幣[508]。人类经济学是一門研究各社會如何分配稀缺資源的社会科学[509]。人與人之间的财富分配存在很大的差距。截至2018年,中國大陸、歐洲、美國最富有的10%人口擁有當地70%以上的財富[510]。
衝突

人類對他人施暴的比例與其他靈長類動物相當,但前者多殺成人少殺嬰[511]。譜系分析顯示,約2%早期智人死於他殺,此一數據來到中世紀時提高至12%。之後到了現代又再回落到低於2%[512]。對於一些文化上十分反對暴力,兼具完善法律體系的社會而言,他殺率可低至0.01%[513]。
「人類於戰爭衝突中有多大程度願意大規模殺害同类」是一道仍未解決的問題。有一觀點認為,暴力是人類的天性,而戰爭則是演化下的產物,讓他們能借其殺死競爭對手[514]。另一觀點認為戰爭跟社會環境轉變不無關係,是相對近期才出現的現象[515]。雖然沒有確實的定論,但現有證據顯示人與人之間的暴力從該一物種存在開始便一直無處不在。生物考古學紀錄顯示,早在定居農業社會形成之前,狩獵採集者的身體便已出現大量因戰爭而導致的創傷[514]。另外也有證據顯示好戰行為在約1萬年前才變得普遍,很多地區甚至於較後期才出現這一轉變[515]。很多人類因戰爭而死亡——有關數字單計20世紀就估計達1.67億至1.88億人[516]。中世紀之前的戰爭傷亡數據相對較不準確,這一情況在全球傷亡總計中尤其明顯。不過與過去600年相比,過去80年(1945年之後)武裝衝突的全球軍民死亡率都出現大幅下降的趨勢[517]。
參見
注释
- ^ 傳統定義。也有歷史學家把它定義為1750年或1800年開始的時期[126][127][128]。
- ^ 人口(約82億人)除以地球總面積(約5.10072億平方公里)[148][149]。
- ^ 人口(約82億人)除以總土地面積(約1.4894億平方公里)[148][149]。
- ^ 截至2025年,總人口最多的10個城市[150]。
- ^ 傳統上,這一現象一直被視為促使人類直立行走及腦部體積增加的演化壓力發生衝突而引起的結果。不過之後亦有研究顯示當中可能亦涉及其他因素[233][234]。
- ^ 研究定義成年人為1998年至2012年期間已滿18歲者。「多地」指測量對象包含北美洲、歐洲、東亞、澳洲的人群。
- ^ 發現纳莱迪人遺骸的洞穴石柱也有刮痕。2023年,報告這項發現的研究者推測它們有241,000年至335,000年歷史,由人手刻成。但這些刮痕是因地殻運動而形成還是人手雕刻仍沒有共識[417]。
- ^ 部分證據把時間推得更早。不過,有关證據能代表的事仍有爭議[435]。
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